Social changes that were addressed in the 1960s

1960's

Many social changes that were addressed in the 1960s are still the

issues being confronted today. the '60s was a decade of social and

political upheaval. in spite of all the turmoil, there were some positive

results: the civil rights revolution, john f. Kennedy's bold vision of a

new frontier, and the breathtaking advances in space, helped bring about

progress and prosperity. however, much was negative: student and anti-war

protest movements, political assassinations, and ghetto riots excited

american people and resulted in lack of respect for authority and the law.

The decade began under the shadow of the cold war with the soviet

union, which was aggravated by the u-2 incident, the berlin wall, and the

cuban missile crisis, along with the space race with the ussr.

The decade ended under the shadow of the viet nam war, which deeply

divided americans and their allies and damaged the country's

self-confidence and sense of purpose.

Even if you weren't alive during the '60s, you know what they meant

when they said, "tune in, turn on, drop out." you know why the nation

celebrates Martin luther king, jr.'s birthday. all of the social issues

are reflected in today's society: the civil rights movement, the student

movement, space exploration, the sexual revolution, the environment,

medicine and health, and fun and fashion.

The Civil Rights Movement

The momentum of the previous decade's civil rights gains led by rev.

Martin luther king, jr. carried over into the 1960s. but for most blacks,

the tangible results were minimal. only a minuscule percentage of black

children actually attended integrated schools, and in the south, "jim crow"

practices barred blacks from jobs and public places. New groups and goals

were formed, new tactics devised, to push forward for full equality. as

often as not, white resistance resulted in violence. this violence spilled

across tv screens nationwide. the average, neutral american, after seeing

his/her tv screen, turned into a civil rights supporter.

Black unity and white support continued to grow. in 1962, with the

first large-scale public protest against racial discrimination, rev. Martin

luther king, jr. Gave a dramatic and inspirational speech in washington,

d.c. After a long march of thousands to the capital. the possibility of

riot and bloodshed was always there, but the marchers took that chance so

that they could accept the responsibilities of first class citizens. "the

negro," King said in this speech, "lives on a lonely island of poverty in

the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity and finds himself an exile

in his own land." King continued stolidly: "it would be fatal for the

nation to overlook the urgency of the moment and to underestimate the

determination of the negro. this sweltering summer of the negro's

legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn

of freedom and equality." when King came to the end of his prepared text,

he swept right on into an exhibition of impromptu oratory that was

catching, dramatic, and inspirational.

"I have a dream," King cried out. the crowd began cheering, but king,

never pausing, brought silence as he continued, "i have a dream that one

day on the red hills of georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of

former slaveowners will be able to sit down together at the table of

brotherhood."

"I have a dream," he went on, relentlessly shouting down the

thunderous swell of applause, "that even the state of mississippi, a state

sweltering with people's injustices, sweltering with the heat of

oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. i

have dream," cried King for the last time, "that my four little children

will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of

their skin but by the content of their character."

Everyone agreed the march was a success and they wanted action now!

but, now! remained a long way off. president kennedy was never able to

mobilize sufficient support to pass a civil rights bill with teeth over the

opposition of segregationist southern members of congress. but after his

assassination, president johnson, drawing on the kennedy legacy and on the

press coverage of civil rights marches and protests, succeeded where

kennedy had failed.

However, by the summer of 1964, the black revolution had created its

own crisis of disappointed expectations. rioting by urban blacks was to be

a feature of every "long, hot, summer" of the mid-1960s.

In 1965, King and other black leaders wanted to push beyond social

integration, now guaranteed under the previous year's civil rights law, to

political rights, mainly southern blacks' rights to register and vote.

king picked a tough alabama town to tackle: selma, where only 1% of

eligible black voters were registered to vote. the violence, the march,

the excitement all contributed to the passage of the second landmark civil

rights act of the decade. even though there was horrendous violence, rev.

king announced that as a "matter of conscience and in an attempt to arouse

the deepest concern of the nation," he was "compelled" to lead another

march from selma to montgomery, alabama.

The four-day, 54-mile march started on the afternoon of sunday, march

21, 1965, with some 3500 marchers led by two nobel prizewinners, the rev.

Martin luther king, jr. And ralph bunche, then u.n. Under secretary for

special political affairs. in the march, whites, negroes, clergymen and

beatniks, old and young, walked side by side. president johnson made sure

they had plenty of protection this time with 1000 military police, 1900

federalized alabama national guardsmen, and platoons of u.s. Marshals and

fbi men.

When the marchers reached the capital of alabama, they were to have

presented a petition to then governor george wallace protesting voting

discrimination. however, when they arrived, the governor's aides came out

and said, "the capital is closed today."

About this same time, the term, "black power" was coming into use. it

was meant to infer long-submerged racial pride in negroes. Martin luther

king, jr. Specifically sought to rebut the evangelists of black power. "it

is absolutely necessary for the negro to gain power, but the term black

power is unfortunate, because it tends to give the impression of black

nationalism. we must never seek power exclusively for the negro, but the

sharing of power with white people," he said.

Unfortunately, the thing that really moved the civil rights movement

along significantly was the murder of rev. Martin luther king, jr. In late

1965. cruelty replaced harmony with nightmarish suddenness. rioting mobs

in the negro suburb of watts, california, pillaged, burned and killed,

while 500 policemen and 5000 national guardsmen struggled in vain to

contain their fury. hour after hour, the toll mounted: 27 dead at the

week's end, nearly 600 injured, 1700 arrested, and property damage well

over $100 million.

The good that came out of all of this, is that thousands of negroes

were flocking to register in the nine counties in alabama, louisiana, and

mississippi where the government posted federal examiners to uphold the

voting law. in four days, 6,998 negro voters were added to the rolls in

counties where there had previously been only 3,857.

In that time of sorrow and guilt when King was murdered, there was an

opening for peace between the races that might otherwise never have

presented itself. president johnson pleaded, "i ask every citizen to

reject the blind violence that has struck dr. King." he went on to say

that to bring meaning to his death, we must be determined to strike

forcefully at the consciences of all americans in order to wrest from

tragedy and trauma, the will to make a better society.

The Student Movement

Americans who were young in the 1960s influenced the course of the

decade as no group had before. the motto of the time was "don't trust

anyone over 30." another, "tell it like it is," conveyed a real mistrust

of what they considered adult deviousness.

Youthful americans were outraged by the intolerance of their

universities, racial inequality, social injustice, the viet nam war, and

the economic and political constraints of everyday life and work. one

group that formed during this time was s.d.s. (students for a democratic

society). opposed to "imperialism," racism, and oppression, the s.d.s.

found the american university guilty of all three. they did do some good

at the beginning like organizing northern ghetto dwellers in projects such

as chicago's jobs or income, now (join). but the viet nam war led to a

change in their tactics. they became an independent radical force against

society. the deluge of disorders made it harder and harder for most

americans to keep events in perspective. they tended to forget that most

of the nation's 6,700,000 collegians were studying hard at school and not

causing trouble. an underlying pattern emerged in the american university.

the university suddenly became a political arena. the students wanted to

address the national problems of war, race, and poverty. as a result, the

university lost some of its neutrality. students created a new u.s.

institution: the political university.

However, another element among youths was also emerging. They were

called hippies. this movement marked another response to the decade as the

young experimented with music, clothes, drugs, and a "counter-culture"

lifestyle. in 1967, hippies preached altruism and mysticism, honesty, joy

and nonviolence. they had a child-like fascination for beads, blossoms,

and bells, strobe lights, ear-shattering music, exotic clothing and erotic

slogans. they wanted to profess "flower power" and love. they were

predominantly white, middle-class, educated youths, ranging in age from 17

to 25. Perhaps the most striking thing about the hippie phenomenon, is the

way it touched the imagination of the "straight" society. hippie slang

entered common usage and spiced american humor. boutiques sprang up in

urban and suburban areas to sell the "psychedelic" color clothes and

designs that resembled art nouveau.

A major development in the hippie world was the "rural community,"

where nature-loving hippie "tribesmen" escaped the commercialism of the

cities in an attempt to build a society outside of society. another

development was the illicit use of drugs, creating the slogan, "tune in,

turn on, drop out." "better living through chemistry" was another

advertising slogan that was a sly joke to the young, but a real worry to

their parents.

Marijuana (pot, grass, mary jane, weed) was their favorite

preparation. however, some were smoking hash, taking mescaline, peyote,

lsd, barbiturates and sedatives. The list goes on and on. and it was only

the beginning. Drug use was everywhere. rock musicians used drugs

frequently and openly. their compositions were riddled with references to

drugs, from the beatles' "i get high with a little help from my friends" to

the jefferson airplane's "white rabbit."

Space Exploration

At the end of 1968, americans became the first human beings to reach

the moon. seven months later, they were the first to actually walk on the

moon. their telecast gave earthbound viewers an unforgettable view of the

moon. Astronaut lovell reported, "the moon is essentially grey, no color.

we can see quite a bit of detail. the craters are all rounded off."

On christmas eve, the astronauts of apollo 8 (borman, lovell, and

anders) gave their best description of the moon in a most impressive

telecast. "this is apollo 8 coming to you live from the moon," reported

borman, focusing his camera on the lunar surface. "the moon is a different

thing to each of us," said borman. "my impression is that it's a vast,

lonely, forbidding-type existence......it certainly would not be a very

inviting place to live or work."

Lovell agreed, but added, "the vast loneliness up here is

awe-inspiring, and it makes you realize just what you have back there on

earth."

In apollo 11, the astronauts landed on the moon on july 25, 1969.

astronaut neil armstrong called out the word everyone was waiting

for......."houston," he called. "tranquility base here. the eagle has

landed." all of america was on the edge of their seats. it was a very

exciting time; cheers, tears and frantic applause went up around the

nation.

"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," became

the watchword when u.s. Astronaut armstrong said this as he placed his foot

firmly on the fine-grained surface of the moon. after centuries of dreams

and prophecies, the moment had come. man broke his terrestrial shackles

and set foot on another world. the new view could help man place his

problems, as well as his world, in a new perspective. The Sexual Revolution

The medical introduction of the "pill" changed the interaction between

the sexes dramatically in 1964. Americans discovered that the freedom from

fear of unwanted pregnancy went hand in hand with other kinds of sexual

freedom. it became an era in which morals were held to be both private and

relative, in which pleasure was being considered almost like a

constitutional right rather than a privilege, in which self-denial became

increasingly seen as foolish rather than virtuous.

The "pill" is a tablet that contains as little as one

thirty-thousandth of an ounce of chemical. it used to cost 1 1/4 cents to

manufacture and a month's supply sold for $2.00, retail. yet, in a mere

six years, it changed and liberated the sex and family life of a large

segment of the u.s. Population. did the convenient contraceptive promote

promiscuity? are americans paying the price today for the decline in

morals and values?

The Environment

A book written by rachel carson, silent spring, earned her a

reputation not only as a competent marine biologist, but as a gifted

writer. the villains in silent spring are chemical pesticides, against

which miss carson took up her pen in alarm and anger. many readers were

firmly convinced that most of the u.s. Was already laced with poison that

would soon start taking a dreadful toll. the only way to fix the situation

was to stop using chemical pesticides and let the "balance of nature" take

care of the insects.

Another "activist" of the day was lady bird johnson, president

johnson's wife. she envisioned beautification all over america. she is

generally credited with inspiring the highway beautification act of 1965.

This is the decade when scientists were becoming more vocal about the

ozone layer, pollution, and smoking cigarettes. americans became aware of

the dangers they encountered everyday and would perhaps hand down to their

children. the federal communications commission voted 6 to 1 to ban

cigarette advertising on radio and tv. eventually, with congressional

approval, cigarette packages had a new warning on them: "caution:

cigarette smoking may be hazardous to your health."

Medicine and Health

Mistakes made in the past caused great social and health problems to

children around the world when it was discovered that using a tranquilizer

called thalidomide caused severe birth defects. babies were born with

hands and feet like flippers, attached close to the body with little or no

arm or leg. as results of using thalidomide became apparent, every

compound drug containing thalidomide was taken off the market.

African-American Troops in the Civil War: The 54th Massachusetts

African-American Troops in the Civil War:  The 54th Massachusetts

      The Fifty-fourth Massachusetts was organized in early 1863 by Robert Gould

Shaw, twenty-six year old member of a prominent Boston abolitionist family. Shaw had

earlier served in the Seventh New York National Guard and the Second Massachusetts

Infantry, and was appointed colonel of the Fifty-fourth in February 1863 by Massachusetts

governor John A. Andrew.

      As one of the first black units organized in the northern states, the Fifty-fourth was

the object of great interest and curiosity, and its performance would be considered an

important indication of the possibilities surrounding the use of blacks in combat. The

regiment was composed primarily of free blacks from throughout the north, particularly

Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Amongst its recruits was Lewis N. Douglass, son of the

famous ex-slave and abolitionist, Frederick Douglass.

      After a period of recruiting and training, the unit proceeded to the Department of

the South, arriving at Hilton Head, South Carolina, on June 3, 1863. The regiment earned

its greatest fame on July 18, 1863, when it led the unsuccessful and controversial assault

on the Confederate positions at Battery Wagner. In this desperate attack, the Fifty-fourth

was placed in the vanguard and over 250 men of the regiment became casualties. Shaw,

the regiment's young colonel, died on the crest of the enemy parapet, shouting, "Forward,

Fifty-fourth!"

      That heroic charge, coupled with Shaw's death, made the regiment a household

name throughout the north, and helped spur black recruiting. For the remainder of 1863

the unit participated in siege operations around Charleston, before boarding transports for

Florida early in February 1864. The regiment numbered 510 officers and men at the

opening of the Florida Campaign, and its new commander was Edward N. Hallowell, a

twenty-seven year old merchant from Medford, Massachusetts. Anxious to avenge the

Battery Wagner repulse, the Fifty-fourth was the best black regiment available to General

Seymour, the Union commander.

      Along with the First North Carolina Colored Infantry, the Fifty-fourth entered the

fighting late in the day at Olustee, and helped save the Union army from complete disaster.

The Fifty-fourth marched into battle yelling, "Three cheers for Massachusetts and seven

dollars a month." The latter referred to the difference in pay between white and colored

Union infantry, long a sore point with colored troops. Congress had just passed a bill

correcting this and giving colored troops equal pay. However, word of the bill would not

reach these troops until after the battle of Olustee. The regiment lost eighty-six men in the

battle, the lowest number of the three black regiments present. After Olustee, the Fifty-

fourth was not sent to participate in the bloody Virginia campaigns of 1864-1865. Instead

it remained in the Department of the South, fighting in a number of actions before

Charleston and Savannah. More than a century after the war the Fifty-fourth remains the

most famous black regiment of the war, due largely to the popularity of the movie

"Glory", which recounts the story of the regiment prior to and including the attack on

Battery Wagner.

      To better show how the 54th felt underfire, here is a letter home from Orderly

Sergeant W.N. Collins of the 54th Massachusetts Infantry accounting Plotter's Raid.

      "Well, we arrived at Georgetown, S.C., on the 3Ist (March 1865), and went into

camp. On the 1st of April we started upon our errand through the State, and had nothing

to molest us for three days. We saw nothing of the Johnnies, and on Friday the 8th of

April, at Epp's Ferry, Cos. H and A were detached from the regiment to go and destroy

the said Ferry. Myself, one corporal and fifteen privates were in the advance. On we went,

neither hearing nor seeing any thing in particular. After advancing about two miles, and

wading through water and mud, we spied a Johnny sitting upon his horse as a picket. He

left his post and secreted himself. Halting my men for further orders, I received

instructions to proceed forward with the utmost caution, and screen my men as much as

possible in the woods. The swamp through which we had to pass was waist-deep.

      Onward we went, and after getting through the swamp, not over seventy-five

yards from Johnny, he saw that we were getting too close to him; and at that time the

Second-Lieutenant of Co. A came along, and I told him that Johnny was getting ready to

fire; and at that moment, Johnny's balls began to fall thick and fast around us.

      The Lieutenant got wounded in the right arm. I had two men wounded - one in the

right leg, the other in both shoulders; and it appeared to us that the Johnnies had nothing

much but bird-shot to fire at us, which whizzed about our ears in perfect showers. The

writer got stung slightly in the left hand by one of these diminutive missiles from Johnny's

shot-gun. They saw that we were determined to complete the job, and they destroyed the

levee and fled. So we returned to our command on the 8th. We entered Manningville with

a loss of but one man killed, who belonged to the 4th Massachusetts Regiment.

      On the I0th we left Manningville, and arrived at Sumterville on Sabbath, the 11th;

and after a short and sharp fight, we took the place, captured three pieces of artillery

complete, killed five rebels, wounded some more, and also captured a few.

      We encamped in the city that night, and destroyed the depot, together with three

locomotives and a train of thirty-five cars. We left on the I3th, after destroying every thing

that fire would burn, and went to Manchester, and there destroyed one locomotive and a

train of twenty cars.

      The 54th was detailed to go seven miles from the place for the purpose of

destroying some trestle-work. After a considerable amount of delay, the advance guard,

which was from Co. F, Sergeant Frank M. Welch commanding, pushed forth. They had

not gone far when they espied a train of cars, with locomotive attached, and a full head of

steam on. The column at once halted and Colonel Henry N. Hooper went forward to see

for himself and there, sure enough, was the train. The sharp report of a rifle soon told

those on the train that the blood-hounds were on the track. The engineer immediately

jumped from the train and ran for his life. Nothing could be seen of him but coat-tails and

dust. The command to move forward was given. With a loud yell and tremendous cheer

the boys charged over the trestle-work, three miles in length, caught the cars, and ran

them ourselves in place of the rebels.

      Lieutenant Stephen A. Swails got wounded in his right arm. There are forty cars

and six locomotives, and we destroyed then all. Some of the cars were loaded. We then

turned the track upside-down. Sergeant Major John H. Wilson and Private Gee. Jorris, of

Co. A, got mashed by the cars. Private Jorris got his collar-bone broken. The Sergeant

Major has got partly over the injuries he received.

      Leaving there, we encamped at Singleton's plantation, and sent two thousand

contrabands to Georgetown in charge of the 32 U.S.C.T. When they returned, we started

upon our mission - and from that time, the 14th, we fought every day with the rebels, and

drove them before us. But at length they made a stand at Swiss Creek, and fought

desperately. We captured nine prisoners. On the 15th we left for the purpose of taking

Camden, which we did capturing all of the rebel sick and wounded there, numbering, a

least, from three to four hundred men.

      On the I6th. we left Camden, and from that we fought until we got to Swiss Creek,

where the rebels again made a stand. Cos. F and H were on the skirmish line, the battalion

on the reserve, the 102d U.S.C.T. in the center, and the 3rd U.S.C.T. on the left wing. We

drove them to their den, when they fought quite desperately for a time. For if they flee

from the horsemen, how can they contend with the footmen? The rebels had a dam

constructed all around them, and there was no way of getting at them but to pass over it in

single file. The left wing went to extreme right for the purpose of flanking Johnny and

there it was that we lost our noble Lieutenant Edward L. Stevens. Who will help us mourn

his loss - for he fell in defense of the dear old flag?

      Corporal Uames P. Johnson and Corporal Andrew Miller of Co. H had six privates

wounded. But the 54th stormed the hill and carried it at the point of the bayonet, making

themselves masters of the field, as they always do. Just like them! Brave boys they are!

Who will say, Three cheers for the 54th Mass. Vols., 32d and I02d U.S.C.T., and for the

25th Ohio Vols., the I07th Ohio Vols., I5th and 56th N.Y. vols., and the 4th Mass., and

the 3d New York Artillery, and for General [Edward E.] Potter's brave troops? For we are

the ones that destroyed and drove the rebels from the field, totally demoralizing them.

      The last fight we had was at Statesburg, and there the rebels stood for the last

time; for we slaughtered them in great numbers. They left the field strewn with their dead

and wounded. We captured, for the rest, in South Carolina, on our return to Georgetown,

fifteen locomotives, and one hundred and forty cars loaded with ammunition, small arms

and stores. We destroyed them all. We captured five hundred contrabands, five hundred

prisoners, destroyed a vast deal of property, and captured about eighty head of horses.

We are now encamped at Georgetown, and I hope we will soon be home with our friends

and relatives."

Airplane Warfare in WWI

Airplane Warfare in WWI

   During World War One, the role of airplanes and how they

 were used changed greatly.  At first planes were only used

 for sport, but people started realize that not only could

 airplanes be useful but they could even influence an outcome

 of the war greatly.  Soon the war was filled with blimps,

 planes, and tethered balloons.  By the end of the war,

 planes became a symbol of fear, but they were not always

 treated with such respect.

          In the time leading up to the war, the general

 feeling about planes was, they were a sneaky, unfair tactic

 that should not be used in warfare.  During The 1899 Hague

 Peace Conference it was put on record that the dropping or

 shooting of any projectiles or explosives from the air

 during a time of war was forbidden and was considered a

 crime of war.  It was also decided that airplanes could only

 be used for reconnaissance or spying missions. (Villard-227)

 "The airplane may be all very well for sport, but for the

 army it is useless" (Quoted in Villard-227) Even by the

 beginning of the war in 1912, the use of planes in war was

 still prohibited by the War Office.  Shortly thereafter this

 changed, people awakened to the possibilities of air

 warfare.  The world soon started to realize the

 effectiveness of planes in war and how the control of the

 skies could influence the outcome. 

         Although the French were the first to have a

 working, conscripting air force and to license fliers, their

 trust in airplanes still was not up to par. Their lack of

 trust was justified, for the planes had no armaments, too

 many wires, and no reliable motor. (Villard-228) 

          Soon all countries in the war effort had their own

 little air force, built hangers, and started to train

 pilots.  The first bombing occurred in November 1911. 

 Although the first bomb was dropped by the Italians, soon

 all countries were involved in bombing raids. (Villard-229)

  It was followed by the first aerial dogfight in 1912. This

 consisted of a primitive exchange of pistol fire between

 British and German planes . (Harvey-95)

         The first flying experience for the United States

 occurred in 1862, during the Civil War.  General McClellan

 went into battle against the South with a balloon corps

 floated by hydrogen and pulled by four horses. (Saga-51)

         Literary fiction started to breed ideas about the

 use of planes in warfare. The most famous writer to explore

 the idea was H.G. Wells.  He wrote  The War In The Air, a

 book about the future in which battle is conducted with

 planes. (Wohl-70).  In Germany, literary fiction preceded

 the actual development of warfare in the air.  Rudolph

 Martin was a writer who predicted that the German's future

 was not on the sea, but in the air.  He also believed that

 further development in aviation would kill the importance of

 distance and help to lead toward the German unification of

 the world.   (Wohl-81)  Martin's novel helped to prepare the

 Germans for their use of planes in the war.  The fiction

 soon became scientific fact.  (Wohl-71)

           The United States, ultimately  was slower than

 France and Germany to develop an air force.  On March 3,

 1911, Congress appropriated $125,000 to start an air force,

 which consisted of five planes.  The first squadron was

 organized by the Americans on March 5, 1913, in Texas City.

  It consisted of nine planes. Although the United States

 entered the war in 1917, it did not use planes in the war at

 that time. (Villard-231)

         U.S. pilots had little or no experience in

 "cross-country navigation."  They did not have good maps and

 sometimes they became lost, ran out of fuel and would have

 to land behind enemy lines.  (Villard-233)

         As the Americans advanced in the use of planes in

 warfare, so did the Germans.  Initially, the Germans made no

 effort to hide their skepticism about the use of planes in

 warfare.  In the beginning of the war, many Germans raised

 in newspaper articles and on government committees the

 possibilities of warfare in the air, but the country as a

 whole was not quick to initiate the effort.  (Wohl-70)

 This quickly changed, however, because the  development of

 airplanes during the war was mostly credited to the Germans.

  The Germans came out with advances in planes that outdid

 anything that France had to offer.  Even though France had

 the largest air force in the world, they soon became

 second-best.  No matter how hard the other countries tried,

 the Germans were always one step ahead in airplane advances.

  These advances were so great that even though the Germans

 were outnumbered eight to one, they still came out on top. 

 For instance, the mounting of a machine gun behind the

 propellers seemed like suicide, but the Germans came up with

 the idea of a timed switch that would allow the gun to fire

 in-between rotations.  This made it easier to aim and fly at

 the same time.  Roland Garros, an allied flier, who mounted

 a gun in the cockpit and put protective plates on his

 propellers was trying to match the German timed device, but

 it was a faulty, unsafe rip-off . (Harvey-95) 

         Another advancement used by the Germans was the

 introduction of luminous paint so that pilot would not fly

 into each other or shoot each other during night raids.

 (Duke-130)  The allied countries tried many times to

 duplicate this and many other German inventions, but failed

 each time. 

         The Germans started putting up hangers and domes

 around it's boarders. They introduced more and more types of

 planes.  As the war went on, Germany introduced the

 BI-planes and Tri-planes which made the use of one winged

 planes obsolete.  The more wings, the more mobility,

 stability, and speed the plane had.  The mobility made it

 easier to evade gun fire or to maneuver better in dogfights.

  The stability made these new planes handle better in

 turbulence, and in reconnaissance missions the speed was

 most important for escaping the enemy.  These new German

 planes dominated the skies and made lumber of the

 allies' "flaming coffins" (old mono-planes) 

         The BI-plane was considered to be the best

 all-around plane.  It was the favorite of the German Flying

 Ace, Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the

 "Red Baron"  The Red Baron was the best pilot in the war,

 and was credited with shooting down 80 allied planes.  He

 was equally respected by both sides, and when he was shot

 down, his enemies held a service for him to show how much

 respect they had.  This show of chivalry was not uncommon,

 for in the beginning of the war, it was tradition to throw

 down a wreath if an enemy plane was shot down, to show

 respect and honor.  However when bombing was introduced, the

 feeling about planes turned from noble flying knights into

 fear, death from above. 

         The evolution of aircraft during World War One was

 profound and unmatched by any other advancements in any

 other field at the time.  From Reconnaissance to bombing,

 the use of airplanes in the war became a necessity

 and by the end of the war airplanes and pilots had earned

 the respect they deserved.  Today's warfare relies heavily

 on the use of aircraft, not only for destruction and

 transportation of troops and supplies, but also for it's

 initial use of reconnaissance.

African American Troops in the Civil War The 54th Massachus

The Fifty-fourth Massachusetts was organized in early 1863 by Robert Gould

Shaw, twenty-six year old member of a prominent Boston abolitionist family. Shaw had

earlier served in the Seventh New York National Guard and the Second Massachusetts

Infantry, and was appointed colonel of the Fifty-fourth in February 1863 by Massachusetts

governor John A. Andrew. 

      As one of the first black units organized in the northern states, the Fifty-fourth was

the object of great interest and curiosity, and its performance would be considered an

important indication of the possibilities surrounding the use of blacks in combat. The

regiment was composed primarily of free blacks from throughout the north, particularly

Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Amongst its recruits was Lewis N. Douglass, son of the

famous ex-slave and abolitionist, Frederick Douglass. 

      After a period of recruiting and training, the unit proceeded to the Department of

the South, arriving at Hilton Head, South Carolina, on June 3, 1863. The regiment earned

its greatest fame on July 18, 1863, when it led the unsuccessful and controversial assault

on the Confederate positions at Battery Wagner. In this desperate attack, the Fifty-fourth

was placed in the vanguard and over 250 men of the regiment became casualties. Shaw,

the regiment's young colonel, died on the crest of the enemy parapet, shouting, "Forward,

Fifty-fourth!" 

      That heroic charge, coupled with Shaw's death, made the regiment a household

name throughout the north, and helped spur black recruiting. For the remainder of 1863

the unit participated in siege operations around Charleston, before boarding transports for

Florida early in February 1864. The regiment numbered 510 officers and men at the

opening of the Florida Campaign, and its new commander was Edward N. Hallowell, a

twenty-seven year old merchant from Medford, Massachusetts. Anxious to avenge the

Battery Wagner repulse, the Fifty-fourth was the best black regiment available to General

Seymour, the Union commander.

      Along with the First North Carolina Colored Infantry, the Fifty-fourth entered the

fighting late in the day at Olustee, and helped save the Union army from complete disaster.

The Fifty-fourth marched into battle yelling, "Three cheers for Massachusetts and seven

dollars a month." The latter referred to the difference in pay between white and colored

Union infantry, long a sore point with colored troops. Congress had just passed a bill

correcting this and giving colored troops equal pay. However, word of the bill would not

reach these troops until after the battle of Olustee. The regiment lost eighty-six men in the

battle, the lowest number of the three black regiments present. After Olustee, the Fifty-

fourth was not sent to participate in the bloody Virginia campaigns of 1864-1865. Instead

it remained in the Department of the South, fighting in a number of actions before

Charleston and Savannah. More than a century after the war the Fifty-fourth remains the

most famous black regiment of the war, due largely to the popularity of the movie

"Glory", which recounts the story of the regiment prior to and including the attack on

Battery Wagner. 

      To better show how the 54th felt underfire, here is a letter home from Orderly

Sergeant W.N. Collins of the 54th Massachusetts Infantry accounting Plotter's Raid.

      "Well, we arrived at Georgetown, S.C., on the 3Ist (March 1865), and went into

camp. On the 1st of April we started upon our errand through the State, and had nothing

to molest us for three days. We saw nothing of the Johnnies, and on Friday the 8th of

April, at Epp's Ferry, Cos. H and A were detached from the regiment to go and destroy

the said Ferry. Myself, one corporal and fifteen privates were in the advance. On we went,

neither hearing nor seeing any thing in particular. After advancing about two miles, and

wading through water and mud, we spied a Johnny sitting upon his horse as a picket. He

left his post and secreted himself. Halting my men for further orders, I received

instructions to proceed forward with the utmost caution, and screen my men as much as

possible in the woods. The swamp through which we had to pass was waist-deep. 

      Onward we went, and after getting through the swamp, not over seventy-five

yards from Johnny, he saw that we were getting too close to him; and at that time the

Second-Lieutenant of Co. A came along, and I told him that Johnny was getting ready to

fire; and at that moment, Johnny's balls began to fall thick and fast around us. 

      The Lieutenant got wounded in the right arm. I had two men wounded - one in the

right leg, the other in both shoulders; and it appeared to us that the Johnnies had nothing

much but bird-shot to fire at us, which whizzed about our ears in perfect showers. The

writer got stung slightly in the left hand by one of these diminutive missiles from Johnny's

shot-gun. They saw that we were determined to complete the job, and they destroyed the

levee and fled. So we returned to our command on the 8th. We entered Manningville with

a loss of but one man killed, who belonged to the 4th Massachusetts Regiment. 

      On the I0th we left Manningville, and arrived at Sumterville on Sabbath, the 11th;

and after a short and sharp fight, we took the place, captured three pieces of artillery

complete, killed five rebels, wounded some more, and also captured a few.

      We encamped in the city that night, and destroyed the depot, together with three

locomotives and a train of thirty-five cars. We left on the I3th, after destroying every thing

that fire would burn, and went to Manchester, and there destroyed one locomotive and a

train of twenty cars. 

      The 54th was detailed to go seven miles from the place for the purpose of

destroying some trestle-work. After a considerable amount of delay, the advance guard,

which was from Co. F, Sergeant Frank M. Welch commanding, pushed forth. They had

not gone far when they espied a train of cars, with locomotive attached, and a full head of

steam on. The column at once halted and Colonel Henry N. Hooper went forward to see

for himself and there, sure enough, was the train. The sharp report of a rifle soon told

those on the train that the blood-hounds were on the track. The engineer immediately

jumped from the train and ran for his life. Nothing could be seen of him but coat-tails and

dust. The command to move forward was given. With a loud yell and tremendous cheer

the boys charged over the trestle-work, three miles in length, caught the cars, and ran

them ourselves in place of the rebels. 

      Lieutenant Stephen A. Swails got wounded in his right arm. There are forty cars

and six locomotives, and we destroyed then all. Some of the cars were loaded. We then

turned the track upside-down. Sergeant Major John H. Wilson and Private Gee. Jorris, of

Co. A, got mashed by the cars. Private Jorris got his collar-bone broken. The Sergeant

Major has got partly over the injuries he received. 

      Leaving there, we encamped at Singleton's plantation, and sent two thousand

contrabands to Georgetown in charge of the 32 U.S.C.T. When they returned, we started

upon our mission - and from that time, the 14th, we fought every day with the rebels, and

drove them before us. But at length they made a stand at Swiss Creek, and fought

desperately. We captured nine prisoners. On the 15th we left for the purpose of taking

Camden, which we did capturing all of the rebel sick and wounded there, numbering, a

least, from three to four hundred men. 

      On the I6th. we left Camden, and from that we fought until we got to Swiss Creek,

where the rebels again made a stand. Cos. F and H were on the skirmish line, the battalion

on the reserve, the 102d U.S.C.T. in the center, and the 3rd U.S.C.T. on the left wing. We

drove them to their den, when they fought quite desperately for a time. For if they flee

from the horsemen, how can they contend with the footmen? The rebels had a dam

constructed all around them, and there was no way of getting at them but to pass over it in

single file. The left wing went to extreme right for the purpose of flanking Johnny and

there it was that we lost our noble Lieutenant Edward L. Stevens. Who will help us mourn

his loss - for he fell in defense of the dear old flag? 

      Corporal Uames P. Johnson and Corporal Andrew Miller of Co. H had six privates

wounded. But the 54th stormed the hill and carried it at the point of the bayonet, making

themselves masters of the field, as they always do. Just like them! Brave boys they are!

Who will say, Three cheers for the 54th Mass. Vols., 32d and I02d U.S.C.T., and for the

25th Ohio Vols., the I07th Ohio Vols., I5th and 56th N.Y. vols., and the 4th Mass., and

the 3d New York Artillery, and for General [Edward E.] Potter's brave troops? For we are

the ones that destroyed and drove the rebels from the field, totally demoralizing them. 

      The last fight we had was at Statesburg, and there the rebels stood for the last

time; for we slaughtered them in great numbers. They left the field strewn with their dead

and wounded. We captured, for the rest, in South Carolina, on our return to Georgetown,

fifteen locomotives, and one hundred and forty cars loaded with ammunition, small arms

and stores. We destroyed them all. We captured five hundred contrabands, five hundred

prisoners, destroyed a vast deal of property, and captured about eighty head of horses.

We are now encamped at Georgetown, and I hope we will soon be home with our friends

and relatives."